Pragmatic Theory by Grice Maxims

Grice’s Conversational Maxims

 H. Paul Grice (1975, “Logic and conversation.” In Cole, P., and J.L. Morgan, eds. Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press, 41–58) was interested in the everyday use of logic. Formal logic embodies a set of axioms that allows lawful deductions. 

1. Formal Logic

 For example, a simply syllogism like:

 All psycholinguists are clever.

 Jim is a psycholinguist.

 Implies (makes the implication), that is, allows us to infer (or make the inference): Jim is clever.

2. Conversational Logic 

If I say, Can you be quiet? 

what inference do you draw? If a colleague asks me how a student did in class, and I reply, She always came to class on time and her penmanship was very neat.

 what inference do you draw? 

WHAT IS THE LOGICAL BASIS FOR THESE INFERENCES?

 The Cooperative Principle Grice suggested that conversation is based on a shared principle of cooperation, something like: “Make your conversational contribution what is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

” This principle was fleshed out in a series of maxims. 

Grice’s Maxims Maxims of Quantity: 

1. “Make your contribution as informative as required.”

 2. “Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.”

 Maxims of Quality: Be truthful. 

1. “Don’t say what you believe to be false.”

 2. “Don’t say what you lack adequate evidence for.” 

Grice’s Maxims, cont’d Maxim of Relation: “Be relevant.” Maxims of Manner: “Be perspicuous.” 

1. “Avoid obscurity of expression.” 

2. “Avoid ambiguity.” 

3. “Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).” 

4. “Be orderly.” 

Implicatures These maxims (or, more precisely, their violation) form the basis for inferences that we draw in conversation, which Grice called implicatures (to distinguish them from formal logical implications). 

Grice asserted that different ways of violating these maxims give rise to different types of implicatures

PRAGMATIC

Pragmatic is a concept of truth with thoughts about seeing practically.
Thus, pragmatics are attitudes and thoughts that demand results and emphasize the practical side rather than seeing everything in detail in the whole process.

A pragmatic example can be seen in the concept of football games. Football games that only aims to get the scores or goals without considering playing the methods or techniques such as attacking or defending. However, good playing techniques make a greater chance of scoring a score or goal.

SYNTAX

MODALS

Modal verbs are a kind of helping verb. They are used to say how we think or feel about an action. By using modal, we can say what we think is going to happen, how sure we are that it is going to happen, and how we feel about it happening. By looking at the list of modal below, you can see that each one has a slightly different meaning and usage.

1.      Can -- able to / giving permission

        Cannot -- unable to / withholding permission

Example:

-          Martin can leave work early today.

-          That little boy can tie his shoelaces.

-          People cannot breathe underwater.

-          My parents said I can't go to the movie.

2.      Could -- past tense of can / expressing the possibility

        Could not (couldn't) -- past tense of “cannot”

  Example :

-          He could run very fast when he was young.

-          By next spring, she could be president.

-          We couldn't read your note.

3.      Should -- it's a good idea / it's probable

Should not (shouldn't) -- it's not a good idea

Example :

-          You should get a doctor to look at that.

-          They left on time, so they should be home soon.

-          You shouldn't go swimming right after you've eaten.

4.      Will -- possible or probable in future

Will not (won't) -- to refuse / not possible in future

Example :

-          I think he will quit, don't you?

-          She'll call you at six tonight.

-          The cat won't come down from the tree.

-          They will not bother you again.

5.      Would -- conjecture/past tense of “will”

Would not -- negative conjecture

Example 

-          If my dog died, I would be very sad.

-          The mayor said he would visit the school.

-          I would not be surprised if they won.

In conversation people usually use “won't” and “wouldn't,” not “will not” and “would                 not.”

6.      May/Might -- To be possible / granting permission

May not/might not -- possibly not /withholding permission

-      

                                     Example: I thought it might snow.

-                                                                            He may/might come to the party.

-                                                                            May I give the dog a biscuit?

-                                                                           That may/might not be the answer.

7.      Must -- have to / almost certain

Must not -- are not allowed to

-          He must be hungry, he hasn't eaten today!

-          Everyone must finish the test before leaving.

-          You must not smoke in the building.

-          That stair must not have been very strong if it broke.



Argumentatif Writing

        BULLYING AND EFFORTS TO MINIMIZE IT

      Bullying is a negative action that involves oppression and manipulatives, carried out one people are more than others during a certain period of time that is physically and non-charged physical. (Psychology Plus volume V no.3) And there are a lot of negative impacs that have been caused for the victims, both physical and psychological.    Not only in Indonesia, bullying has been global. Therefore this action must be stopped or minimized. Various ways are done in various countries to minimize intimidation. Several attempts were made by several countries to minimize intimidation.

      First, on Norway, Minister of local education start a national campaign against intimidation in 1983. Along with this campaign, carried out major research Longitudinally involving 2500 students for 2.5 years. Start show so the number of bullying events is 50% after The first 2 year program is implemented campaign. In 2000, the minister education also develops networks nationally for professionals related to developing supported institutions bullying and student problems.

       Another discusses in the Netherlands, starting in the year 1970s, psychologists began to be allocated policy for bullying problems. In 1992, a researcher stated
it is 25% of the student population elementary school (385,000 children) become victims of bullying. Since then, National Education Protocol to Persecution form, by being compiled
social skills training program for victims and victims, information dissemination to teacher and parents. Power Procurement counselor, collaboration with schools for
responding to bullying actions.

      Whereas in Hong Kong, how to deal with bullying actively suppressive, like lecturing actors, invite parents to ask, invite parents to school, it turns out to be less effective compared to strategy like antibodies beneficial to train students to developself competence and social skills, good temporary relationship parent-teacher useful as an anti-violence strategy.

     These are some of the ways that have been done in several countries to minimize acts of intimidation. What we can apply to protect the intimidation behavior that is around us. Considering how alarming it was bullying, beware of child compilation or teenagers around us have signs of "defense or psychological. Parents, we must be able to prevent bullying from running rampant.


Reference:
Anonim. 2002. Bullying and Problem Disorder . New York: Mc Graw Hill. ___. 2011.
Psikologi Plus volume V no.3. Semarang.

PHONETIC

PHONETICS

Phonetics, the study of speech sounds and their physiological production and acoustic qualities. It deals with the configurations of the vocal tract used to produce speech sounds (articulatory phonetics), the acoustic properties of speech sounds (acoustic phonetics), and the manner of combining sounds so as to make syllables, words, and sentences (linguistic phonetics).

ACCORDING TO EXPERT : 

1.      (Chaer 1994:102)

        Phonetics is a branch of phonological study that studies the sound of a language regardless of whether the sounds have a function of differentiating meaning or not.

2. (Keraf 1984: 30).

       Phonetics is the science that investigates and analyzes the speech sounds used in speech, and learns how to produce these sounds by means of human speech.

3. (Kridalaksana, 1995: 56)

              Phonetics is the science that investigates the earning, transmitting, and reception  of sounds of language; Interdisciplinary linguistics with physics, anatomy, and psychology.

Chaer (2007) divides the sequence of the process of the sounds of language, into 3 types of phonetics :

1. Phonetic articulator/ phonetic organism /phonetic physiology.

        Studying how the mechanisms of speech-devices work in producing sounds of language and how they are classified.

         (Glenson 1955: 239-256; Malmberg 1963: 21-28).

2 . Acoustic phonetics

        Studies the sound of language as a physical event or a natural phenomenon (the sounds are investigated for their velocity, aplitudo, and intensity of nature)

        (Malberg 1963: 5-20).

C. Phonetically auditors

 >> Learn how the mechanism of acceptance of the language sounds by our ears.